Social and psychological aspects of management. Moscow State University of Printing Social and psychological aspects of social management
PSYCHOLOGICAL ASPECT OF MANAGEMENT.
PEOPLE AS AN INTERNAL VARIABLE.
PSYCHOLOGICAL STRUCTURE OF PERSONALITY
A person can do without many things, but not without a person!
Chesterfield
A bad owner grows weeds, a good owner grows rice.
The smart one cultivates the soil, the far-sighted one educates the worker.
Japanese wisdom
People – the fifth internal variable, which in the light of modern management concepts comes first in importance. Today's manager knows how much depends on the people who work in the company. One of the leaders of a large American computer company said: “Deprive me of all my achievements, leave only the people I work with, in five years we will reach the same level again.”
In order to manage people and be able to successfully interact with them, you should know what determines the behavior of individuals, the behavior of people in groups, the nature of the manager’s functioning as a leader and his influence on the behavior of individuals and groups. This requires knowledge in the field of human psychology, taking into account the individual psychological characteristics of a person that influence his behavior and activities.
Let's give a brief description of the personality.
The “construction” of personality is complex. The simplest personality traits are:
personality status;
social-functional roles;
value orientations.
Personal status - This is the position of an individual in society.
Status largely determines a person's behavior. Thus, recognition of professional excellence and respect from colleagues builds self-confidence, self-esteem, and self-esteem. Low status can lead to internal conflicts and discord with oneself.
Human behavior is influenced not only by objective status, but also by subjective status, i.e. As a personperceives one's position in a particular group of people.
In connection with status, a system of social-functional roles is built.Roles - these are ways of behavior of people that correspond to accepted norms and are carried out depending on their status in society or group. In his life, a person “loses” many different roles. We can distinguish social roles, professional, interpersonal, etc. Even during the day, each of us “transitions” from one role to another: when you go to college (technical school, university), you play the role of a transport passenger; in the classroom, you are a student , during a break - a buyer in a buffet (dining room) or a group mate, upon returning home - a son or daughter of his parents. In an organization, role behavior is very important: goals will then be achieved if everyone fulfills their role well and correctly.
The system of social-functional roles, on the one hand, forms certain personality qualities, and on the other, contributes to the manifestation of many personal properties and qualities.
In order to get to know a person better, you need to “see” him in different roles.
Personality properties are formed and manifested in accordance withvalue orientations . These are preferences that a person gives to certain aspects of reality. Preferences are manifested in the beliefs, ideals, and goals of the individual. For many people, work is one of the values in life. The organization's staff perceives the leader's values. Top-level managers, through their inherent values, regulate the ethical behavior of subordinate teams. Each organization develops its own value system, which ultimately constitutes its moral character: customs, rules.
The personality structure also contains properties that are more complex in nature. These include motives, character, temperament, needs, abilities. Let's look at them.
Motives - these are the reasons for a person’s behavior, as a result of which he acts this way and not otherwise. Motives determine the direction of a person’s behavior. Human activity is stimulated, as a rule, by many motives, but some prevail and subordinate others. It depends on them which properties and qualities of a personality will be formed easier, faster, and which with great difficulty.
The following types of personality orientation are distinguished: personal, collectivist and business. The possible predominance of one of them will manifest itself in the group of qualities corresponding to this orientation. For example, a business orientation will manifest itself in such qualities as determination, punctuality, adherence to principles, organization, etc.
Character – a stable individual set of personality characteristics, a stable system of qualities that leads to the most typical behavior in certain situations and circumstances.
Personality character is formed under the influence of both genetic factors and social conditions. Character is manifested in relation to other people, to oneself, to business. It should be remembered that character is not an immutable set of qualities; character is plastic and can be educated!
A certain type of character usually corresponds to a certain temperament.
Temperament. A person is not born as an already established personality, but becomes one gradually. But even before a person becomes an individual, he exhibits individual mental characteristics. They are stable, given to a person from birth and form a kind of psychological soil on which, depending on its characteristics, the specific properties of a given personality subsequently grow. These natural properties that determine the dynamics of human mental activity are properties of temperament. Depends on temperament:
the speed of occurrence of mental processes and their stability (for example, speed of mind, duration of concentration);
mental tempo and rhythm;
the intensity of mental processes (for example, the strength of emotions, the activity of the will);
the direction of mental activity towards certain specific objects (for example, a person’s constant desire for contacts with new people, for new impressions, or a person’s turning to himself, to his ideas and images).
Temperament will manifest itself in a person’s reaction to circumstances, to events, in speech, actions, and movements.
Exists4 types of temperament . They are presented in the table.
Classification of temperament types and their relationship with the type of nervous system
A person with any temperament can achieve success in work, because temperament does not manifest itself directly, but through character. Character can be nurtured and formed.
The manager’s task is to, taking into account the temperamental characteristics of employees, assign them such work, build relationships with them in such a way that their best traits are revealed and their potential is used to the maximum extent.
Let's give a brief description of people with different types of temperament.
Sanguine – energetic, efficient, sociable, active, sociable, full of initiative; adapts well to a new environment, easily gets used to new requirements; thinks through and organizes activities well, thinks rationally, sets tasks clearly, is prone to creativity, does not like monotonous work, it is better not to entrust him with routine work. Sanguine people are characterized by a certain tendency towards leadership. Their ability to act purposefully, to subordinate their whole selves to work, and not to make work dependent on their mood, creates the prerequisites for carrying out organizational activities. A sanguine person can be criticized - he is insensitive. (Of the famous personalities, V.I. Lenin and A.I. Herzen were sanguine.)
Choleric , like a sanguine person, is highly sensitive to external influences, he is excitable and unbalanced. He has a very strong stability of interests and aspirations; persistent. It is better not to entrust him with monotonous, monotonous types of work: they irritate him. Since the emotional manifestations of a choleric person are unpredictable and he easily runs into conflicts, it is advisable not to give him assignments that require restraint. The choleric person orients himself faster than others in a changing environment, and is resourceful in disputes and discussions; quickly adapts to new conditions. Experts believe that a person with such a temperament is good to use in marketing activities. (Peter the Great and A.V. Suvorov were choleric.)
Phlegmatic person – a serious person, always evenly and calmly disposed; it is difficult to switch from one type of activity to another, to a new environment and people get used to it slowly; exceptionally persistent; not too resourceful, but very efficient. A phlegmatic person is unemotional, but if he is unbalanced, he can act assertively and aggressively. It is good to use such an employee in areas of work where there are conflicts, and where prolonged stress is required. It is better to give him assignments in writing; It takes him a long time to learn new things, but very thoroughly. It is believed that the best designers, economists, and accountants are phlegmatic. (M.I. Kutuzov and I.A. Krylov were phlegmatic.)
Melancholic characterized by high emotional sensitivity, depth of emotions with weak external expression; may be vulnerable, touchy. Prolonged and severe stress causes him to slow down his activity. He gets tired quickly. Shows persistence in overcoming difficulties. His work is most productive where high sensitivity, thoughtfulness, and caution are needed. Low self-esteem seems to block the realization of the melancholic’s abilities and purely serves as the cause of his internal discomfort. In relation to other people, melancholic people are, as a rule, soft, tactful, sensitive, and responsive. In a favorable, familiar environment, especially in a good, friendly team, melancholic people do an excellent job assigned to them. (N.V. Gogol and P.I. Tchaikovsky were melancholics.)
The source of a person’s activity is his needs.
Need - this is a person’s experience (awareness) of a need for something (food, warmth, communication, power, etc.), causing the need to act in a certain way.
Needs as internal mental states regulate the behavior of an individual and determine the direction of thinking. A person strives to satisfy his needs. Depending on whether needs are met or not met, a person experiences states of tension or calm, emotions of joy or grief, feelings of satisfaction or dissatisfaction.
Human needs are diverse, but each individual is characterized by a certain system of needs. It includes dominant needs and subordinate needs. The dominant ones will determine the main direction of behavior. For example, a person experiences a strong need for success. He subordinates all his actions and actions to this need. This main need for success can be subordinated to the needs for knowledge, communication, work, etc. Managers should strive to create situations in which meeting the employee's needs would lead to the realization of the organization's goals.
Of great importance for the manager are such aspects of individual behavior of employees as:
capabilities;
giftedness, predisposition;
expectations;
perception.
These factors have a strong impact on individual behavior.
Capabilities are partly explained by heredity (for example, intellectual abilities and some physical characteristics). But usually abilities, including intellectual ones, are acquired with experience. When deciding what position to accept a person for, what work to entrust him with, the abilities that this person possesses play a big role.
Giftedness - talent in a certain area.Predisposition – a person’s potential to perform a particular job. These characteristics are important when addressing the issue of personnel development in an organization. Thus, time and expenses for training an employee will be wasted if the manager fails to assess the predisposition for a certain job.
Expectations . People formulate expectations about the results of their behavior based on their past experiences and their assessment of the current situation. These expectations influence today's behavior. People will work effectively if they expect that organizationally required behavior will lead to the achievement of desired goals or the satisfaction of personal needs. For example, if a salesperson expects that 9 more deals per week will increase sales volume by 15% and thereby guarantee a bonus, then he will probably make several more calls to potential buyers.
Perception . The science of psychology states that the world is not what it is, but how we perceive it. In this regard, people react not to what is happening, but to what they perceive as actually happening. It is the latter that will determine people's behavior. Employee perception of management and everything management does is very important. If employees do not take the manager seriously, then his decisions may be often ignored.
Of course, appropriate personality traits are a strong factor in success at work, but the behavior patterns of individual individuals are significantly influenced by groups and managerial leadership.
In the management system personality acts as an object and subject of management.
People management is based on a number of principles:
1) maintaining a sense of self-respect among subordinates (first you need to praise the subordinate and only then give instructions for improving work);
2) attention to problems, not personalities;
3) active use of methods of reinforcing positive reactions to desirable actions or negative reactions to undesirable ones.
4) putting forward clear requirements, maintaining constant contact with people, strong feedback connections.
At the present stage of management development, determining the psychological portrait of an individual is one of the most important issues, the solution of which will improve the efficiency of personnel management.
It is important for every manager to be able to tap into their internal psychological reserves. To do this, you need to learn to know yourself and other people, identify temperament, character, personality orientation, the relationship of activity and life to goals and life situations, expected emotional behavior in tense situations and interpersonal relationships, and business qualities.
Each person has a bright individuality, which is an integral property that unites his natural and personal characteristics. Stand out in individuality basic And programming properties. TO basic include temperament, character, and abilities of a person. It is through basic properties that a certain style of behavior and activity of an individual is formed. Based on an assessment of personality properties (direction, intelligence and self-awareness, it can be compiled psychological picture , consisting of the following components:
1) temperament;
2) character;
3) abilities;
5) intelligence;
6) emotionality;
7) strong-willed qualities;
8) sociability;
9) self-esteem;
10) level of self-control;
11)ability for group interaction.
The development of a person’s individuality continues throughout life. With age, only a person’s position changes - from an object of education he turns into a subject of education and must actively engage in self-education.
Improvement programming properties personality provides her with full-fledged, fruitful, long-term creative activity and influences changes in some basic qualities, in particular, character. Increased interest in the profession leads to intensification of intellectual activity, increased motivation, and the development of intelligence leads to the search for new goals for this activity, the formation of perseverance, and determination.
Assessing the business qualities of a manager. A modern manager appears in several guises.
Firstly, it is a manager, vested with power, leading team.
Secondly, he is a leader who is able to lead his subordinates using his authority and high professionalism.
Thirdly, he is a diplomat who establishes contacts with partners and authorities and successfully overcomes internal and external conflicts.
Fourthly, this is an educator with high moral qualities, capable of creating a team and directing its development in the right direction.
Fifthly, he is an innovator who understands the role of science in modern conditions and is able to evaluate and implement inventions into production.
Sixthly, this is simply a person with high knowledge and abilities, a level of culture, honesty, decisive character and at the same time prudence.
In connection with management functions, the role of a manager comes down to the following:
1 ) he is a representative, an organizer who knows how to work with people;
2) he is a generator of ideas, seeking to look into the essence of the problem;
3) he is an enthusiast: full of energy, inspiring others to take on any task;
4) he is a controller, an analyst, capable of putting forward an idea and finding strengths and weaknesses in it.
5) he is a seeker of benefits and can be a good mediator between people;
6) he is a performer, a good administrator, capable of bringing an idea to life. 7) his colleagues like him (he doesn’t strive to take anyone’s place, he is able to encourage them).
To analyze and evaluate a manager, sociologists have developed a model that includes the following qualities:
1) Business (education, knowledge and experience);
2) Ability (giftedness, talent, genius, ability for a given type of work);
3) Cultural qualifications and erudition, honesty and decency;
4) Character (will, activity, independence, commitment, care for subordinates, ability to accept criticism, admit one’s mistakes);
5) Temperament (choleric, sanguine, phlegmatic, melancholic);
7) Age qualification (young, middle, elderly, senile);
8) Health (good, fair, bad).
The assessment conditions are established:
No quality – 1 point;
Quality manifests itself very rarely – 2 points;
The quality is neither strong nor weak – 3 points;
Quality is often demonstrated – 4 points;
Quality is demonstrated systematically – 5 points.
Basics of team building. The coming together of individuals to accomplish certain tasks is team. For a manager, the team is the main support. In accordance with the theory of the systems approach, the organization of a team’s work can be considered satisfactory if its result is greater than the sum of the results of the team members. A special spirit of competition arises in the team, increasing efficiency. Teamwork is indispensable where, for one reason or another, it is not possible to clearly distribute job responsibilities between employees. There are two types of teams - formal created by management, and informal. In informal teams there is an informal leader (leader and followers).
To create a formal team, it is necessary to conduct sociological and psychological research so that there is an efficient team with a normal moral and psychological climate (MPC).
The process of creating an informal team d Literal Western experts divide this process into 5 stages:
At the first stage, people unite unconsciously, spontaneously reacting to any emergency events;
At the second stage there are usually more conscious emotions;
At the third stage, the informal team is already united in an organized manner in order to jointly fight some external constant danger;
At the fourth stage, the factor that unites people is something positive, for example, to establish themselves in competition, belong to a prestigious club, etc.;
At the fifth stage, people unite to solve major long-term goals that can only be solved collectively.
The level of team cohesion depends on the stage of its maturity.
An efficient team must have optimal dimensions . The more people there are, the more difficult it is for them to communicate with each other and reach agreement on key issues. Therefore, large groups are divided into small ones of about 5 people.
An important feature of a healthy team is clarity of goals. Everyone should have a good idea of what results to strive for, clearly understand and share the goals of the team, then people are more likely to devote themselves to these goals and will seek a compromise between personal and collective interests in order to satisfy their needs and contribute to the common treasury. The performance of the team is also affected by the implementation of the relevant norms and standards of behavior, which include honesty, competence, professionalism, ethical standards, etc. Compliance and regulation of norms and standards brings the team together. At the same time, informal contacts should be practiced - gala dinners and lunches, field trips, etc.
A good team must constantly be in a state of searching for something new, and also extinguish conflicts and stress in a timely manner.
Maintaining a normal moral and psychological climate in the team is important in ensuring the effectiveness of the team.
The most important signs of a favorable IPC:
1) trust and high demands of group members towards each other;
2) friendly and businesslike criticism;
3) free expression of one’s own opinion when discussing issues affecting the entire team;
4) the absence of pressure from managers on subordinates and the recognition of their right to make decisions that are significant for the group;
5) sufficient information content of team members about its tasks and the state of affairs in their implementation;
6) satisfaction with belonging to a team;
7) a high degree of emotional involvement and mutual assistance in situations that cause a state of frustration (deception, frustration, destruction of plans) in any of the team members;
8) taking responsibility for the state of affairs in the group by each of its members, etc.
Thus, the nature of the IPC as a whole depends on the level of group development.
Optimal management of activities and IPC in any team requires special knowledge and skills from the management team. The following special measures are applied: scientifically based selection, training and periodic certification of management personnel; staffing primary teams, taking into account the factor of psychological compatibility of the temperaments and characters of team members; the use of socio-psychological methods that contribute to the development of skills of effective mutual understanding and interaction among team members; application of an appropriate leadership style.
The effectiveness of the team depends on the degree to which the social aspects of management are implemented.
On the social aspects of management relate:
- ensuring product safety;
Recruitment and promotion of personnel;
Ensuring the distribution of responsibility in the decision-making process;
Formation of an optimal wage system;
Motivation for quality work;
Ensuring the safety and attractiveness of work;
Ensuring normal conditions for recreation and personnel reproduction;
Ensuring hygienic, physiological and ethical standards of labor organization;
Research of the pyramid of personnel needs, development and implementation of measures to ensure that employees cover all levels of the pyramid of needs;
Research and regulation of the firm’s relationship with the microenvironment and infrastructure.
Most social aspects are regulated in the form of standards, norms and regulations at various levels. Therefore, the enterprise bears social and legal responsibility for their implementation.
Motivation to achieve goals - To effectively move towards a goal, a manager must coordinate work and motivate people to complete it. Leaders translate their decisions into action by putting into practice the basic principles of motivation. Motivation is the process of motivating oneself and others to act to achieve company and personal goals. The very first method of motivating work was the carrot and stick method or the reward and punishment method, which is still used today. Motivation is based on needs, table. 4.2.
A simplified model of motivation of behavior through needs is shown in Fig. 4.2.
Rice. 4.2. A simplified model of motivating people's behavior through needs
Physiological needs are necessary for survival. These include needs for food, water, shelter, rest, and sexual needs.
Security needs and confidence in the future include the need for protection from physical and psychological dangers from the outside world and confidence that physiological needs will be satisfied in the future.
Social needs is a concept that includes the feeling of being accepted by others, a sense of social interaction, affection and support.
Esteem needs include the needs for self-esteem, personal achievement, competence, respect from others, and recognition.
Self-expression needs– the need to realize one’s potential and grow as an individual.
6.1. Personnel management and human capital formation
Since the 70s of the 20th century, under the influence of the publications of G. Becker, the term “human capital” began to be widely used. People are the most valuable of resources and the basis of any management of any economic system. According to an integrated approach, the human model should reflect economic, social, ethical, environmental and other aspects. Human capital is considered as a set of qualities that determine productivity and can become a source of income for an individual, family, enterprise, and society. Such qualities are (Genkin B.M.): health, natural abilities, education, professionalism, mobility.
The term “human resources” is also used in the literature, and “labor potential” is used in domestic literature.
A person’s labor potential is part of his potential as an individual, which is formed on the basis of natural data (abilities), education, upbringing and life experience. Labor potential can relate to a person, an organization, or a society.
The set of characteristics that are used in the literature to determine the possibilities of effective labor does not fully correspond to the realities of the modern economy. On the scale of the country's economy, human resource management is aimed primarily at developing legislation in the field of labor, employment and social relations in order to regulate employment, conditions and remuneration, business relationships between employers and employees, and improving the skills of the working population.
6.2. Manager Personality
The success of managers depends on the degree of managerial skill (experience) they possess. This skill can be grouped into seven different categories: conceptual, decision-making, analytical, administrative, communication, psychological, technical.
Conceptual mastery involves the ability to understand an organization's perspective; develop appropriate strategies for the organization as a whole; analyze and diagnose complex situations;
Decision-making skill - the ability to make timely, effective (or acceptable) decisions at minimal cost;
Analytical skill involves the ability to systematically diagnose problems and identify alternative solutions.
Administrative skill is the ability to effectively use administrative methods of influence, build the structure of an organization, and distribute responsibilities and powers.
Communication skill involves the ability to convey one's ideas and opinions to others, both orally and in writing.
Psychological skill ("human relations" skill) includes the ability to interact effectively with others, both inside and outside the firm; understand and motivate them both individually and in groups. The success of interactions influences how much support a manager receives in developing and implementing organizational plans.
Technical proficiency includes specific competence to perform tasks, the ability to apply specialized knowledge, and to conduct and use expertise.
A high-class manager must: 1) be able to scientifically predict the company’s development strategy, the efficiency and competitiveness of the product (work, service); analyze and know the factors influencing competitiveness; justify and promote your ideas with arguments (orally and in writing); 2) be able to formulate the goals of the team; understand the character and characteristics of the individual, adequately evaluate oneself and other people; maintain a normal moral and psychological climate in the team; relieve stress; respond correctly to conflict situations; 3) be able to analyze, forecast, economically evaluate and make decisions under conditions of uncertainty; 4) be able to organize yourself and your team to achieve your goals; perform the functions of resource allocator, dispatcher and coordinator, delegate functions and responsibilities to management levels; organize and encourage employees to implement the marketing concept, improve quality and save resources; 5) know the technical and technological features, the principle of operation of the purchased, sold or produced object; understand issues of unification, standardization, specialization and automation of production; 6) be able to set high personal goals to satisfy the needs for self-expression, try to lead a normal lifestyle, maintain good physical shape, constantly improve their qualifications, express thoughts clearly and intelligibly, be honest, obligatory, purposeful, pay attention to clothing, manners and speech.
6.3. Motivation and stimulation of personnel
Motivation is one of the functions of management, the importance of which is increasing in modern conditions. There are many definitions of motivation, here are some of them.
Motivation is the process of motivating (oneself and others) to act in order to achieve certain goals (personal or organizational).
Motivation is a set of driving forces that encourage a person to carry out activities, setting the boundaries and forms of activity; giving direction focused on achieving certain goals.
Motivation is a process of mental regulation that influences the direction of activity and the amount of energy mobilized (expended) to perform this activity. The main elements of motivation are motive, need, reward, value.
A motive is what causes certain actions of a person, what drives him. A distinction must be made between purpose and motive. The motive for action is a need (a feeling of lack, a need for something, a special mental state of the individual, felt or recognized by him as “tension,” “dissatisfaction,” “discomfort”). Needs are the source of human activity. Activity is directed by a variety of motives; their totality and the internal process of motivation itself is called motivation.
The strength and activity of motivation are expressed in the degree of its influence on the direction of activity and its success. Strengthening motivation increases the success of an activity up to a certain limit; with a further increase in motivation, the success of an activity begins to decline. Due to the differences in the motivational structures of individual people, the varying degrees of influence of the same motives on different people and the degree of dependence of the action of various motives on behavior, the motivational process is complex and ambiguous. The difficulty of motivation through needs and values is due to the fact that each person has his own structure of needs and values.
Reward is a certain value for a person; everything that a person considers valuable to himself.
The manager encounters two types of reward: 1) internal, which is provided by the work itself (the content of the work, the significance of the work, communication, friendship); 2) external, given by the organization (salary, promotion, status, prestige, recognition, additional benefits and payments).
Motivation is the process of influencing a person in order to encourage him to take certain actions by awakening certain motives in him.
Depending on the goals Vikhansky O.S. distinguishes two main types of motivation: 1) through external influences on a person, which encourage a person to carry out certain actions leading to a desired result for the motivating subject; 2) by forming a certain motivational structure of a person.
There is a distinction between the concepts of motivation and stimulation. Stimulation is one of the means of motivation (through external influences). The higher the level of development of relations in an organization, the less often incentives are used as management tools.
There are several types of incentives: moral, material (monetary and non-monetary), time and labor. Based on the time of stimulation, the following forms of stimulation are distinguished: 1) advanced; 2) reinforcing.
Labor incentives should be carried out in a differentiated manner depending on the workers’ belonging to different social groups and the results of their work.
In practice, various forms of employee activation and stimulation of highly productive work are used: 1) payment and reward for labor results; 2) social care for the employee; 3) stimulation by labor itself; 4) participation in the management of the enterprise.
6.4. Leadership and management style
Leadership is the ability to put forward a motivating goal for individuals (members of a group, organization), to influence and effectively use available means (and sources of power) to achieve goals. The condition of leadership is the correspondence of the goals of the leader and the people following him. In contrast to leadership, power seeks obedience regardless of the degree of correspondence between the goals of the subject and the object of power and the correctness of the actions of the authorities. Outside the sphere of power of the subject of management, a decision can only be carried out on the basis of leadership.
Leadership includes components of power and leadership. Depending on the predominance of the leader's attention to one of the two groups, different leadership styles are distinguished. The relationship between power and leadership in an organization is one of the most important problems. A true leader knows what people want and need even before they can express their desires. The condition of leadership is the correspondence of the goals of the leader and the people following him.
G. Mintzberg formulated eight main qualities that should be inherent in a leader:
1) the art of being equal, that is, establishing and maintaining a system of relationships with equal people,
2) the art of being a leader, i.e. the ability to manage subordinates, cope with all the difficulties and problems that come to a person along with power and responsibility,
3) the art of resolving conflicts, i.e. the ability to act as a mediator between two parties to a conflict, to resolve troubles caused by psychological stress,
4) the art of processing information, i.e. the ability to build a communication system in an organization, obtain reliable information and evaluate it effectively,
5) the art of making non-standard management decisions - the ability to find problems and solutions in conditions where alternative courses of action, information and goals are unclear or doubtful.
6) the art of distributing resources in an organization, i.e. the ability to choose the right alternative, find the best option in conditions of limited time and lack of other types of resources.
7) gift of an entrepreneur, i.e. the ability to take justifiable risks and introduce innovations in the organization.
8) the art of self-analysis, i.e. the ability to understand the position of the leader and his role in the organization, the ability to see the impact the leader has on the organization.
A manager, based on his personal qualities and other factors, can choose one or another form of power and management style.
K. Levin identified three leadership styles:
b) democratic (makes decisions based on consultations with subordinates who take an active part in making decisions, subordinates are sufficiently informed, delegation of powers is applied, and objective control is exercised);
c) liberal (most of the decisions and responsibilities are transferred to subordinates, they are bombarded with excessive information not related to job responsibilities, control is often absent or formal).
Delegation of authority is the transfer of responsibilities and rights from the manager’s sphere of activity to a subordinate, who assumes responsibility for their implementation. Delegation allows you to: 1) free the manager from current, uncreative, routine work and devote more time to planning and creativity; 2) attract employees to perform work from the sphere of activity of management, providing support and participation of personnel, and improve the qualifications of subordinates. The following are subject to delegation: routine work, specialized activities, private issues, preparatory work.
6.5. Group dynamics
A group in the broadest sense is a union of two or more people united together to achieve specific goals. Groups can be classified according to a number of criteria. Large groups: states, nations, nationalities, classes, parties, social communities. Small groups are small associations of people (from 2-3 to 30-40 people), whose members have a common goal and can directly contact each other. Such groups include work collective, educational group, family, sports team, etc. Small groups can be classified on various grounds.
Conditional group - a group selected for research purposes to compare the results obtained in real groups. A real group is a truly existing association of people. Real groups can be laboratory and natural. A laboratory group is created by an experimenter to conduct research and exists temporarily. A natural group is formed to achieve a goal, based on the needs of society or group members. A reference group is a group to which a person identifies himself, a role model. A non-reference group is a group that is alien or indifferent to a person. Anti-reference group - a group that a person does not accept or rejects.
The team is the highest stage of group development. An integral characteristic of a team - its level of development (level of maturity) - is defined as the team’s ability to set relevant and realistic common goals, form a structure of individual goals integrated with common goals, build and flexibly change the structure of interactions and relationships that ensure the achievement of set goals with the highest possible efficiency .
Group structure refers to the following characteristics: size, composition, roles, norms, status, leadership.
Each group member is usually assigned certain roles, i.e. patterns of behavior expected from members of groups in accordance with the place in the group that they occupy.
In order to work successfully, all groups develop certain norms of behavior, i.e. accepted patterns of behavior within a group that must be followed by all its members. Norms can be formalized in certain documents: standards, regulations and procedures. However, most of the norms that guide groups are informal.
By status in a group we mean the position or rank that is assigned to one or another member of this group by other members. Status can also be formal (for example, winner of the “Best in Profession” competition) and informal (respect corresponding to merit, knowledge, etc.).
The effectiveness of a group, along with other factors, is determined by its size. Research shows that when performing a specific task, small groups (approximately 7 people) are most productive, while when discussing and collective decision-making, groups of 12 or more people show the best results.
Work performed in groups, as a rule, requires various knowledge, abilities, skills and personal qualities. In this regard, it is generally accepted that groups of heterogeneous composition (by gender, age, length of service in the organization) work more effectively than groups of relatively homogeneous composition. At the same time, in groups of heterogeneous composition, problems such as conflicts due to misunderstandings among their members, struggle for power, and higher staff turnover may arise. However, with skillful management, these problems can be very successfully overcome.
The effectiveness of the group will largely depend on the capabilities of its members - abilities and personal qualities. The capabilities of a team cannot be considered as a simple sum of the capabilities of each of its members. The results of the group will depend on what each member can do individually and how successfully he will do it as a group.
Each group is formed and develops in its own way. At the same time, some general patterns can be identified in the development of various groups. Any group goes through several stages in its development. In the 5-stage model of group development, the following stages are distinguished: the initial stage of formation; intragroup conflict; ensuring cohesion among group members; stage of highest performance and productivity; final stage (for temporary groups). The initial stage of formation, as a rule, is characterized by uncertainty regarding the structure of the group and its goals. It is often unclear who the leader of this group is and what type of behavior is most acceptable within it. This stage ends when group members begin to clearly understand that they are part of the group. Intragroup conflict is the second stage of group development, usually characterized by the development of intragroup conflict. There is a struggle for leadership and distribution of roles between group members. After this stage is completed, it becomes clear who the leader is in this group (if it is a formal group, then we are talking about an informal leader). At the stage of ensuring cohesion among group members. relationships become closer, harmony emerges. There is clarity regarding informal norms of behavior and the distribution of roles in the group. At the stage of highest efficiency and productivity, the group is fully functional. The energy of its members is no longer directed at the distribution of roles and the struggle for power, but directly at ensuring effective work and achieving high results. For temporary groups, the final stage is allocated. The closer to the completion of the project or the closer to the completion of the task assigned to the group, the more its members begin to think that this group will soon cease to exist, as well as about new prospects for their work in another team. The group's productivity may noticeably decline during this period.
6.6. Conflict Management
Conflict (from Latin conflictus - clash) is a lack of agreement between two or more parties in a certain area. Conflict is a special type of interaction between organizational subjects, in which the actions of one party, faced with opposition from the other, make it impossible to realize its goals and interests. Conflict arises when the balance of interests of the parties is disturbed, therefore conflict management is the most important function of a manager. A manager at any level must be psychologically prepared to manage conflict situations and resolve them before they develop into a conflict.
A conflict situation is the initial sign of a conflict; it is expressed in the aggravation of relations, the emergence of contradictions between people, which, under certain circumstances, develop into a conflict. The actions of opponents under the influence of a motive, aimed at mastering an object for individual manipulation of it, is called an incident, as a result of which a conflict situation develops into a conflict.
The structure of the conflict includes: the object and subject of the conflict, opponents (participants in the conflict), goals, motives.
The object of the conflict is the external cause that led to the emergence of a conflict situation. The object of the conflict is identified on the basis of the property of indivisibility and accessibility to manipulation by opponents. The subject of the conflict is an objectively existing or conceivable problem that serves as the reason for the discussion between the parties; the main contradiction, because of which and for the sake of resolving which subjects enter into confrontation. The motive of conflict is the internal psychological reason for people entering into conflict.
According to the content, they distinguish: 1) conflict of goals, when its participants see the desired state of the object in the future differently; 2) conflict of cognition (creative), when views and concepts on the problem being solved differ significantly (belongs to the category of complex); 3) emotional conflict (sensual), when people cause each other antipathy, irritation and other negative feelings and emotions.
According to the scope of action, conflicts are distinguished: 1) intrapersonal; 2) interpersonal; 3) between the individual and the group; 4) intergroup conflict.
Depending on the degree and nature of the resolution, on the consequences, the conflict can be: 1) constructive (positive, conducive to development); 2) destructive (negative, destructive, destabilizing).
The causes of the conflict are divided into two groups: 1) objective (real, structural); 2) subjective (personal, emotional, related to perception).
The most common sources (causes) of conflicts in organizations: 1) distribution of scarce (limited) resources; 2) disputes about power and responsibility; 3) interdependence of tasks and different contributions to the common cause; 4) differences in goals, values, methods; 5) differences in behavior and life experiences; 6) unfulfilled expectations; 7) lack of mutual understanding; 8) poor working conditions and organization; 9) poorly formulated team of performers; 10) lack of consideration of the human factor; 11) unsatisfactory transmission of information; 12) personal relationships, frustration and irritation; 13) non-compliance with the rules and procedures adopted in the organization, etc.
The conflict “goes through” three main stages-states:
a) incubation state (hidden, latent); grievances can be (quickly and positively) resolved peacefully;
b) conflict behavior (open form); actions are aimed at directly or indirectly blocking the achievement of the goals, intentions, interests of the opposing party; sharp disagreements arise, normal relationships, interactions and relationships are destroyed;
c) conflict resolution; the conflicting parties must reduce the level of tension, maintaining the conflict situation itself, or look for ways to completely resolve the conflict.
Appendix No. 2
to the working curriculum for the academic discipline
"Management"
Tomsk Military Medical Institute
Cycle of general professional disciplines
Teacher Polomeeva O.A.
LECTURE
Topic No. 2. “Social and psychological aspects of management”
Introduction.
Psychological aspects of management.
People as one of the components of the internal environment of an organization.
Conclusion.
TRAINING COURSE: 4th year BC
Time: 2 hours.
LECTURE PLACE: lecture hall.
VISUAL Aids AND TRAINING MATERIALS:
a) “Principles of social management”;
b) “Principles of Management (according to A. Fayol)”;
c) “Psychology of organization”;
d) “Management functions”;
e) “Psychological structure of personality”;
Technical equipment: graphic projector
LITERATURE:
Gatsan V.V. Management of a pharmaceutical enterprise. For students of pharmaceutical schools and colleges. Rostov-on-Don: “Phoenix”, 2002.-352 p.
Zhatkin O.A., Burmatnov V.F. Fundamentals of social medicine, organization and economics of health care. Tomsk: TVMedI, 2002.- 196 p.
Kuzubova E.L. Social management in the work of pharmaceutical organizations. - M.: MCFR, 2003. - 240 p.
Meskon M.K., Albert M., Khedouri F. Fundamentals of management: Translation from English - M.: Delo, 2002.-704p.
Ten E.E. Fundamentals of social medicine: Textbook. M.: Infra M, 2003.-256 p.
Psychology of management. Workshop / Edited by N.D. Tvorogova. - M.: GEOTAR_MED, 2001. - 368 pp. - (XX1st century).
Tvorogova N.D. Psychology of management. Lectures.- M.: GEOTAR-MED, 2001.-384 p.- (XXI century).
INTRODUCTION
In modern conditions, the role of social and psychological factors has increased in society and production teams, which requires managers to have a qualitatively new approach to management and a completely different focus in working with personnel. This is important for managers of all organizations without exception to learn when reforming property rights, economic and labor relations occurs.
Under the administrative-command system, the management of people was unbalanced. At the organizational level, the development of staff creative initiative was of a declarative nature, which reduced labor productivity and interest in the final results of the work. Alienation of personnel from the results of their work was observed not only in Russia, but also in countries with developed market economies. However, different countries had their own ways out of the crisis: in Russia - a transition to a market model of economic management, and in countries with developed market economies (USA, Japan, etc.) - a transition to the use of mechanisms for activating social processes in management. This led to the formation of social management.
Managers of successful companies began to develop and apply methods aimed at activating creative potential and social processes in organizations, overcoming the alienation of personnel from the results of work, and innovative technologies, which served as the basis for the formation of new management principles that changed the requirements for the organization of the management process and its content .
Research in the field of social management has gained particular interest, the main principles of which are:
rejection of managerial rationalism classical schools of management, - innovativeness;
social responsibility of management;
attitude towards people as the main resource of the organization;
formation of organizational culture;
formation of innovative communications;
obligatory share participation of everyone member of the organization;
transition from sole decision-making to the use of a partnership (or complicity) strategy;
rejection of incrementalism and the formation of an entrepreneurial type, organizational behavior;
- self-management leader.
The increasing role of social factors in the life of society and organizations has led to the evolution of the principles of classical management.
If in the first models the labor process was divided into the simplest elements, and work efficiency was directly associated with high formalization and narrow specialization, managers were considered generators of ideas and solutions that were unconditionally carried out by the staff. At the same time, the motives of workers’ behavior were reduced only to economic needs; personal and social aspects of intra-production relations were considered a hindrance.
In modern management concepts, the focus is on the psychological and social needs of the individual, the emphasis is on the use of informal mechanisms for regulating the production process, on creative activity and self-realization of the individual.
Today, a manager must master a variety of different methods, methods, approaches and management techniques that allow him to streamline the activities of both the organization as a whole and each person individually. The methods used in modern management make it possible to answer the question of how to carry out this or that managerial work. They serve the goals of the manager’s practical activities, provide him with a system of rules, techniques and approaches that reduce the costs of all types of resources, including time for developing and implementing goals.
In recent years, there have been fundamental changes in the thinking of managers and the psychology of management: in the production process, the person himself has become a priority as the most important factor in increasing the productivity of the organization. The consciousness of the manager, as well as the staff, is increasingly turning to the consumer (client, customer), to the development of creative initiative, and not to the mindless execution of orders; towards pluralism of opinions and diversity of working methods, and not towards unification and depersonalization.
Since management is carried out through the interaction of people, the manager in his activities must take into account the laws that define processes, interpersonal relationships, and group behavior.
1. The law of response uncertainty, or, in other words, the law of dependence of people’s perception of external influences on differences in their psychological structures.
Different people and even one person at different times can react qualitatively differently to the same influences.
A manager, giving an order to an employee, hopes that it will be completed by a certain date and with a certain result. Sometimes these hopes come true. But quite often he is not satisfied with the performance of his subordinate according to any of the controlled parameters. At the same time, both the subordinate and the manager have their own, often diametrically opposed, explanations for failure to perform. A manager may consider a subordinate a slacker or an incapable worker. The subordinate, in turn, can present dozens of objective circumstances to justify his lack of discipline. The manager's opinion may be wrong. The subordinate's excuses are simply naive. For the first chose a method of influencing the employee that did not correspond to his expectations and abilities, the second used all methods as means of defense, as long as they did not affect him as a person, would not offend his sense of self-worth and self-respect.
2 . The law of the inadequacy of the reflection of man by man .
Its meaning is that no person can comprehend another person with such a degree of reliability that would be sufficient to make serious decisions about that person.
In fact, a person is a super complex system. It is included in the system of social relations and therefore is their expression and reflection. A person changes in accordance with the law of age asynchrony (at any moment in time, an adult of a certain calendar age can be at different levels of physiological, intellectual, emotional, motivational, social and sexual development).
In addition, a person consciously and unconsciously protects himself from attempts to reveal his characteristics and capabilities. A psychologically revealed personality can become a toy in the hands of a person prone to manipulating people.
It should be added to this that often a person cannot give information about himself simply because he does not know himself.
On the one hand, no matter what a person is, he always hides something about himself, weakens something, strengthens something, denies some information about himself, replaces something, sometimes attributes something to himself (invents), emphasizes something. Using such defensive techniques, he demonstrates himself to people not as he really is, but as he would like others to see him.
On the other hand, a person is a special case among the objects of the reality surrounding us and as such can be known. The whole point is that the means of cognition correspond to the degree of complexity of such an object.
At present, scientific principles of approaching a person as an object of knowledge have already been developed. The most important among them:
the principle of universal talent (“there are no incapable people, there are people who are busy with something other than their own”);
development principle (abilities develop as a result of changes in the individual’s living conditions and intellectual and psychological training);
the principle of inexhaustibility (no assessment of a person during his lifetime can be considered final).
3. The law of inadequacy of self-esteem.
This law can be considered as a special case of the previous law. When a person tries to evaluate himself, he is hampered by the same restrictions as in the case of analyzing other people. In addition, the situation is complicated by another circumstance. The psyche can be represented in the form of conscious (logical-mental) and unconscious (emotional-sensory, intuitive) components. The relationship between them looks like between the surface and underwater parts of an iceberg. It is for this fundamental consideration that logical, rational introspection is the study, in essence, of the visible tip of the iceberg.
4. The law of splitting the meaning of management information.
In general terms, this law is that management information (directives, resolutions, orders, orders, instructions, directions) has an objective (in principle independent of us) tendency to change meaning in the process of moving along the stupa -yum hierarchical management ladder. Moreover, the change in this information directly depends on the number of people through whom it passes: the greater the number of workers who become acquainted with this information and pass it on to other people, the higher the deviation of its meaning from the original one.
The deep basis for the splitting of the meaning of information can be understood by taking into account the following two circumstances.
Firstly, The language in which management information is transmitted is a natural language, the conceptual composition of which is characterized by enormous allegorical possibilities and, consequently, the possibility of different interpretations of the same message.
Secondly, people who perceive and transmit management information differ in education, intellectual development, needs, physical or mental state, which, naturally, can leave an imprint on the understanding and transmission of this information.
5. The law of self-preservation.
The leading motive of social behavior is the preservation of personal status, personal viability, and a person’s own dignity.
6. Law of compensation.
Its essence is that with a high level of incentives for a given work or high environmental demands on a person, the lack of any abilities for the successful implementation of this particular activity is compensated by other abilities or skills and the ability to work.
For example, poor development of professional memory can be compensated by a skillfully designed system of external memory: notebooks, weekly calendars, voice recorders, organization of the work of secretaries and assistants, rational placement of business documentation.
Lack of development, such as the ability to generate ideas, can be compensated by organizing meetings in a split-time mode. The science of management is not limited to the psychological laws described above.
Some managers take into account the laws of management and coordinate their activities with their requirements only on an intuitive level. But the main thing is that production, as the basis of life and development of society, is capable of overcoming not only its own inertial forces, but also the inhibitory actions of control systems that do not meet the requirements of the laws of management. But at what cost? At the cost of slowing progress, great material damage, and loss of moral values.
The most conducive to team building is a gradual and reasonable transfer of responsibility downwards. Giving subordinates the right to make decisions independently, deal with the most pressing and interesting problems, and propose innovations greatly facilitates the manager’s task, and gives employees a sense of involvement in the management of the company. Current issues should be resolved by the employees themselves after the manager has shown how this is done. While assigning responsibility to employees, one cannot fail to provide them with corresponding rights. A characteristic feature of many Russian companies is limitedness. And sometimes the lack of a modern system of motivation for highly effective work. Most employees do not strive to show initiative and creativity in their activities, or to fully take responsibility for decisions made and implemented in practice. They do not imagine the need and importance of the coincidence of personal and organizational interests. Hence the objective need to develop and implement a modern system for stimulating employee activity. Practice in this area is far from modern requirements. Many Russian companies, especially small and medium-sized ones, are experiencing considerable economic difficulties today, have limited resources, and the problem of their survival should largely be solved through reserves, the use of which does not require large expenses. One of these reserves is the introduction of a system of modern labor motivation.
Let's start from theoretical approaches. As you know, for work there is a reward, which is everything that a person considers valuable to himself. These types of incentives are divided into internal and external. The first include self-esteem, satisfaction from achieving results, a sense of content and significance of one’s work, human communication in the process of work, and others. To ensure this type of reward, the manager is required to accurately set tasks and create the necessary conditions for highly productive work.
External reward is what is provided by the company in exchange for work performed: wages, bonuses, career growth, symbols of status and prestige, praise and recognition, various benefits and incentives.
Let us note that standard approaches to motivation and organization of incentives often turn out to be ineffective: incentives change depending on the contingent of workers, the tasks facing the team, its characteristics, etc. The main attractiveness of work is its creative nature. Therefore, the manager is called upon to ensure that the content of the work of each subordinate is constantly updated. Participation of personnel in planning, with earnings directly dependent on the financial results of the company’s activities, is also an important element of motivation.
Each company employee is an individual. A person lives by working and in the process of work he realizes himself as an individual. For a manager, it is important not so much to stimulate him as to correctly assess the value of his work. Taking into account merit and gratitude for work done increases incentives to work. Motivators are not only various bonuses, memorable gifts, etc. The nature of labor remuneration depends on its quantity and quality, as well as on the satisfaction of the wishes and hopes of the employee himself. One of the most effective motives for creative work is career advancement. The opportunity to purchase shares of the enterprise is also of great importance, which creates for the employee the impression of a co-owner.
The nature and size of the reward acts as its price and at the same time the price of merit. A modern manager constantly notes the value of an employee to the team. At the same time, it is emphasized not so much that it has great potential, but rather the results achieved. Since the general desire for justice is characteristic of our time, in assessing the work of each employee and his contribution to overall success, the manager must be as objective as possible, rely not on general impressions, but on specific accurate indicators and data, cultivating in his employees a sense of involvement in the affairs of the team. The development of an incentive system in Russia, taking into account the specifics of labor relations and the mentality of employees, is one of the most important reserves for the effectiveness of company management. Therefore, material factors do not always come to the fore and cannot serve as the only form of remuneration for work.
A well-chosen workforce of the company should represent a team of like-minded people and partners who are able to understand and implement the plans of management. The innovative nature of the activities of a modern company, the priority of quality and service issues change the requirements for employees, increase the importance of a creative attitude to work and high professionalism. This has already led to significant changes in the principles, methods and socio-psychological issues of personnel management.