UAV for civilian use. Drone: review of Russian and foreign unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs)
"Tachyon" is a Russian small unmanned aerial vehicle created by engineers of the company Izhmash - Unmanned Systems LLC (Izhevsk). This drone was first introduced in 2012. "Tachyon" is designed for observation, fire adjustment, target designation, and damage assessment. It is effective when conducting aerial photography and video shooting of areas at a distance; if necessary, it can be used as a communications signal repeater. Currently, this drone is used in the ground forces, as well as in units of the Russian Navy.
The research and production association “Izhmash - Unmanned Systems” has been counting its work since 2006. One of the company’s areas of work immediately became the development, production, repair, maintenance, sales and installation of unmanned aerial vehicles. The company is currently working to expand the tactical and technical capabilities of its products and develop new unmanned aerial systems. It is worth noting that in recent years Izhevsk has become a landmark city for Russian unmanned systems. Today, in the capital of Udmurtia, there are three serious companies that are developing drones. This is the already designated research and production association “Izhmash - Unmanned Systems”, the Zala aero company, 51% of the shares of which belongs to the Kalashnikov arms concern, and the Finiko LLC enterprise, also known as the “Unmanned Systems” group of companies.
At the same time, drones can become a new brand of Udmurtia. The acting head of the permanent mission of the republic to the President of Russia, Mikhail Khomich, spoke about this within the framework of the Eastern Economic Forum in September 2017. According to him, for many governors, Udmurtia’s leadership in the creation and production of drones has become a priority. Today they find their consumers not only in the military, but also in the civilian sphere and are widely represented on the Russian market.
The development and design of the Tachyon unmanned aerial vehicle began in the late 2000s; this device was presented to the general public in 2012. At the end of 2014, drones began to enter service with UAV units of the Eastern Military District. Despite the fact that this aircraft was originally developed and intended for use exclusively in the military sphere, its flight performance and operational characteristics make the UAV highly promising. This model is in demand, so the drone is quite actively produced as part of the state defense order. In the future, this unmanned aerial vehicle may be exported to the armies of other countries.
In January 2015, state tests of a new modification of the drone began in Russia, which was powered not by batteries, but by fuel cells. In the same year, news began to appear about the supply of these drones to the troops, in particular, at the beginning of 2015, they entered service with the reconnaissance units of the Central Military District (CMD), and in 2016, they entered service with the Russian military base in Armenia. More recently, information appeared in the Russian press about the creation of a new special forces detachment within the Caspian Flotilla. A detachment of “coastal special forces” is being created on the basis of a detachment of anti-sabotage forces and means (PDSS) of the Caspian Flotilla. It is reported that, among other things, Tachyon drones will also be used in service with this detachment. They will help special forces soldiers during the secret landing of reconnaissance groups on the shore, as well as in detecting enemy saboteurs, including under water.
Thus, in 2015, fighters from special units of the Northern Fleet tested Tachyons in bays on the coast of the Kola Peninsula. First of all, they were interested in the possibility of using a drone to detect combat swimmers and their delivery vehicles at various depths, as well as the detection of mobile bases of saboteurs, secrets and camouflaged ambushes, including at night using special surveillance systems. The capabilities of detecting small and ultra-small objects on the shore, on the water surface and under water were tested.
The small unmanned aerial vehicle "Tachyon" is designed according to the "flying wing" aerodynamic design. This scheme is a variation of the “tailless” scheme with a reduced fuselage, the role of which is played by the wing, which carries all the components and payload. One of the brightest representatives of aircraft built according to the “flying wing” design is the American strategic bomber B2 Spirit. The Tachyon UAV consists of a glider with an automatic autopilot control system, a power plant, controls, an on-board power system, as well as a parachute landing system and removable target load units, which can change depending on the tasks being solved by the drone. The drone is launched using a rubber catapult and landed by parachute.
The Tachyon unmanned aerial vehicle was specially designed for use in harsh climatic conditions; it can be equipped with a video camera, thermal imager and other equipment. The device has small weight and size characteristics and can be used in a wide range of temperatures and altitudes, as well as at significant wind speeds. The launch weight of the drone does not exceed 25 kg, with a payload weight of 5 kg. These small drones can be used in the interests of military reconnaissance during the day and at night at a distance of up to 40 kilometers, even in adverse weather conditions; operation is permitted with wind gusts of up to 15 m/s. The Tachyon UAV is capable of conducting reconnaissance in a time scale close to real, and can also be used to organize video and voice communications, acting as signal repeaters.
The Tachyon small unmanned aerial vehicle has a fairly compact design, its length does not exceed 61 cm, and its wingspan is two meters. Despite its small size, thanks to its special aerodynamic shape, it is highly maneuverable and stable in flight. The power plant uses one electric motor, which allows the multifunctional device to reach speeds of up to 120 km/h. In this case, the maximum duration of the device’s stay in the air is limited to two hours. On Tachyon drones, equipped with electric motors powered by fuel cells, the energy for flight is generated by an electromechanical electricity generator. Such an unmanned aerial vehicle uses compressed hydrogen as fuel, and atmospheric air as an oxidizer.
The unmanned complex consists of two Tachyon unmanned aerial vehicles, a set of replaceable payload modules (photo camera, television camera, infrared camera, thermal imager), a ground control station and a catapult. The crew of the complex consists of two people on the ground. Both work with computers. One of them controls the unmanned aerial vehicle, and the screen of the other displays the information coming from the drone.
Flight characteristics of the Tachyon UAV:
Length - 610 mm.
Wingspan - 2000 mm.
Take-off weight - 25 kg.
Payload weight - 5 kg.
The engine is electric.
Flight speed: maximum - 120 km/h, cruising - 65 km/h.
Flight duration is 2 hours.
Range of action - 40 km.
Maximum flight altitude is 4000 m.
Operating temperature range: -30 to +40 °C.
The use of the Tachyon drone during exercises at the combined arms training ground in Molkino near Goryachiy Klyuch, January 2016, photo.
The book is primarily for informational purposes and is written based on the results of reviews and analysis of numerous literary and Internet sources. It introduces the reader to the current terminology and classification in the field of unmanned aircraft, modern trends in the production of unmanned aerial vehicles, as well as the state of the market for unmanned aircraft systems.
1.2.4. Classification of UAVs by purpose
In many classifications, UAVs are divided into military and civilian by purpose. However, apparently, a more logical division is in which UAVs are first divided into larger areas of use, namely for scientific purposes and for applied purposes; the latter are divided into UAVs for military and civilian use (Fig. 1.79).
In the scientific field, UAVs are used to obtain new knowledge, and it does not matter what area this knowledge comes from and where it will later be applied. This could be testing new technology (including new flight principles) or observing natural phenomena.
The applied area of UAV use consists of two main directions - military and civil.
Military UAVs can be classified according to their functional purpose as follows:
– observational (can be used, in particular, to adjust fire on the battlefield);
– reconnaissance;
– strike (for attacks on ground targets using missile weapons;
– reconnaissance and strike;
– bomber;
– fighter (to destroy air targets);
– radio broadcasting;
– UAV electronic warfare (for electronic warfare purposes);
– transport;
– UAV targets;
– UAV target simulators;
– multi-purpose UAVs.
The civilian area of application of UAVs is very extensive. The industries and consumers of UAV services also range from agriculture and construction to the oil and gas and security sectors, as well as scientific organizations, advertising companies, the media and individual citizens. To systematize the review of the entire variety of purposes of civil UAVs, we will conditionally identify 5 enlarged groups, formed according to the criterion of the functions performed (the groups are listed in descending order of frequency of use today).
1. Monitoring and similar tasks.
This includes all tasks related to monitoring various objects, collecting measurement and other information. We list the known applications from this group:
– video surveillance for the purpose of protecting various objects;
– monitoring of forest areas by the forest protection service;
– patrolling of designated areas by the police;
– traffic monitoring on railways and highways, navigation control;
– monitoring the crops of farmers and agricultural enterprises;
– control of fisheries;
– mapping of the earth’s surface;
– reconnaissance and drawing up plans of premises using small UAVs inside destroyed or dangerous buildings;
– search for minerals using special sensing tools;
– monitoring of oil and gas facilities, especially pipelines;
– inspection of construction sites;
– video photography of hard-to-reach industrial facilities (power lines, bridge supports, chimneys, wind generators, antennas, etc.);
– radiation and chemical reconnaissance in hazardous areas;
– meteorological observations;
– environmental monitoring of the atmosphere and surface of water bodies;
– monitoring of dangerous natural phenomena (floods, volcanic eruptions, avalanche-prone mountainous areas, etc.);
– assessment of the results of natural disasters and the elimination of their consequences;
– observation of wild animals in nature reserves.
This group of UAV applications is currently expanding rapidly thanks to the activities of numerous companies and individual enthusiasts. This may include the following:
– video and photography of objects of architecture, nature, business, as well as public events for the purpose of presentation or advertising;
– use of UAVs as advertising media (for example, on the surface of an airship);
– the use of small UAVs for educational purposes in schools and universities;
– aircraft modeling and aircraft design for numerous amateurs;
– the use of small UAVs as an art object or entertainment object.
3. Cargo delivery and similar tasks.
The specificity of this group of applications allows UAVs used in this way to be called aerial robots. This, in particular, can include such UAV applications as:
- mail delivery;
– delivery of tools, components and materials to construction sites;
– installation of various structures;
– performing or providing repair work on hard-to-reach objects;
– spraying chemicals and applying fertilizers on fields;
– laying cables in hazardous areas;
– delivery of products, fuel, spare parts, power supplies, etc. to hard-to-reach areas to provide for climbers, tourists, expeditions;
– resetting markers (light, radio-emitting) to indicate any objects;
– delivery of medicines and medical equipment for victims in accident and disaster zones;
– evacuation of victims from the disaster zone;
– evacuation of expensive material assets from hazardous areas;
– delivery of life-saving equipment to those in distress on the water;
– dropping explosive devices in the mountains to organize preventive avalanches;
– refueling or recharging of autonomously operating hard-to-reach devices (buoys, beacons, weather stations, relay stations, etc.).
4. Signal relay and similar tasks.
These include the following applications (usually implemented using helicopter or aerostatic UAVs):
– relaying radio signals to increase the range of communication channels;
– use of UAVs as carriers of lighting equipment;
– installation of loudspeakers on board to reproduce sound: commands, music, etc.;
– using a UAV as a platform for generating or reflecting a laser beam.
5. Control of the behavior of living objects.
These still few and rather exotic applications boil down to the following:
– using a UAV as a “shepherd”: controlling the movement of herds of horses, flocks of sheep, etc.;
– scaring away flocks of birds from airfields.
In recent years, a large number of publications have appeared on the use of unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) or unmanned aircraft systems (UAS) to solve topographic problems. This interest is largely due to their ease of operation, efficiency, relatively low cost, efficiency, etc. The listed qualities and the availability of effective software for automatic processing of aerial photography materials (including the selection of the necessary points) open up the possibility of widespread use of software and hardware for unmanned aircraft in the practice of engineering and geodetic surveys.
In this issue, with a review of technical means of unmanned aircraft, we open a series of publications about the capabilities of UAVs and the experience of using them in field and desk work.
D.P. INOZEMTSEV, project manager, PLAZ LLC, Saint Petersburg
UNMANNED AIRCRAFT: THEORY AND PRACTICE
Part 1. Review of technical means
HISTORICAL REFERENCE
Unmanned aerial vehicles appeared in connection with the need to effectively solve military problems - tactical reconnaissance, delivery of military weapons (bombs, torpedoes, etc.) to their destination, combat control, etc. And it is no coincidence that their first use is considered to be the delivery of bombs by Austrian troops to a besieged Venice using balloons in 1849. A powerful impetus for the development of UAVs was the emergence of radio telegraphs and aviation, which made it possible to significantly improve their autonomy and controllability.
Thus, in 1898, Nikola Tesla developed and demonstrated a miniature radio-controlled vessel, and already in 1910, the American military engineer Charles Kettering proposed, built and tested several models of unmanned aerial vehicles. In 1933, the first UAV was developed in Great Britain.
reusable, and the radio-controlled target created on its basis was used in the Royal Navy of Great Britain until 1943.
The research of German scientists was several decades ahead of their time; in the 1940s they gave the world a jet engine and the V-1 cruise missile as the first unmanned aerial vehicle used in real combat operations.
In the USSR, in the 1930–1940s, aircraft designer Nikitin developed a torpedo bomber-glider of the “flying wing” type, and by the early 40s, a project for an unmanned flying torpedo with a flight range of 100 kilometers and above was prepared, but these developments did not turn into real designs.
After the end of the Great Patriotic War, interest in UAVs increased significantly, and since the 1960s, their widespread use has been noted to solve non-military problems.
In general, the history of UAVs can be divided into four time stages:
1.1849 – beginning of the twentieth century - attempts and experimental experiments to create UAVs, the formation of the theoretical foundations of aerodynamics, flight theory and aircraft calculations in the works of scientists.
2. Beginning of the twentieth century - 1945 - development of military UAVs (projectile aircraft with a short range and flight duration).
3.1945–1960 - a period of expansion of the classification of UAVs by purpose and their creation primarily for reconnaissance operations.
4.1960 - present day - expansion of the classification and improvement of UAVs, the beginning of mass use for solving non-military problems.
UAV CLASSIFICATION
It is well known that aerial photography, as a type of remote sensing of the Earth (ERS), is the most productive method of collecting spatial information, the basis for creating topographic plans and maps, creating three-dimensional models of relief and terrain. Aerial photography is carried out both from manned aircraft - airplanes, airships, trikes and balloons, and from unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs).
Unmanned aerial vehicles, like manned ones, are of airplane and helicopter types (helicopters and multicopters are aircraft with four or more rotors with main rotors). Currently in Russia there is no generally accepted classification of aircraft-type UAVs. Missiles.
Ru, together with the UAV.RU portal, offers a modern classification of aircraft-type UAVs, developed based on the approaches of the UAV International organization, but taking into account the specifics and situation of the domestic market (classes) (Table 1):
Short-range micro- and mini-UAVs. The class of miniature ultra-light and lightweight devices and complexes based on them with a take-off weight of up to 5 kilograms began to appear in Russia relatively recently, but already quite
widely represented. Such UAVs are intended for individual operational use at short ranges at a distance of up to 25–40 kilometers. They are easy to operate and transport, they are foldable and positioned as “portable”; they are launched using a catapult or by hand. These include: Geoscan 101, Geoscan 201, 101ZALA 421-11, ZALA 421-08, ZALA 421-12, T23 “Aileron”, T25, “Aileron-3”, “Gamayun-3”, “Irkut-2M”, “ Istra-10",
“BROTHER”, “Curl”, “Inspector 101”, “Inspector 201”, “Inspector 301”, etc.
Lightweight short-range UAVs. This class includes slightly larger aircraft - with a take-off weight from 5 to 50 kilograms. Their range is within 10–120 kilometers.
Among them: Geoscan 300, “GRANT”, ZALA 421-04, Orlan-10, PteroSM, PteroE5, T10, “Eleron-10”, “Gamayun-10”, “Irkut-10”,
T92 “Lotos”, T90 (T90-11), T21, T24, “Tipchak” UAV-05, UAV-07, UAV-08.
Lightweight, medium-range UAVs. A number of domestic models can be classified as this class of UAVs. Their weight varies between 50–100 kilograms. These include: T92M "Chibis", ZALA 421-09,
“Dozor-2”, “Dozor-4”, “Pchela-1T”.
Medium UAVs. The take-off weight of medium-sized UAVs ranges from 100 to 300 kilograms. They are intended for use at ranges of 150–1000 kilometers. In this class: M850 “Astra”, “Binom”, La-225 “Komar”, T04, E22M “Berta”, “Berkut”, “Irkut-200”.
Medium-heavy UAVs. This class has a range similar to that of the previous class of UAVs, but has a slightly larger take-off weight - from 300 to 500 kilograms.
This class should include: “Hummingbird”, “Dunham”, “Dan-Baruk”, “Stork” (“Yulia”), “Dozor-3”.
Heavy medium-range UAVs. This class includes UAVs with a flight weight of 500 kilograms or more, designed for use at medium ranges of 70–300 kilometers. The heavy class includes the following: Tu-243 “Flight-D”, Tu-300, “Irkut-850”, “Nart” (A-03).
Heavy UAVs with long flight duration. The category of unmanned aerial vehicles is quite in demand abroad, which includes the American UAVs Predator, Reaper, GlobalHawk, Israeli Heron, Heron TP. There are practically no samples in Russia: Zond-3M, Zond-2, Zond-1, Sukhoi unmanned aerial systems (BasS), within the framework of which a robotic aviation complex (RAC) is being created.
Unmanned combat aircraft (UCA). Currently, work is actively underway around the world to create promising UAVs that have the ability to carry weapons on board and are designed to attack ground and surface stationary and mobile targets in the face of strong opposition from enemy air defense forces. They are characterized by a range of about 1,500 kilometers and a weight of 1,500 kilograms.
Today in Russia there are two projects presented in the BBS class: “Proryv-U”, “Scat”.
In practice, UAVs weighing up to 10–15 kilograms (micro-, mini-UAVs and light UAVs) are usually used for aerial photography. This is due to the fact that with an increase in the take-off weight of a UAV, the complexity of its development increases and, accordingly, the cost, but the reliability and safety of operation decreases. The fact is that when landing a UAV, energy E = mv2 / 2 is released, and the greater the mass of the vehicle m, the greater its landing speed v, that is, the energy released during landing grows very quickly with increasing mass. And this energy can damage both the UAV itself and property on the ground.
An unmanned helicopter and a multicopter do not have this drawback. Theoretically, such a device can be landed at an arbitrarily low speed of approach to the Earth. However, unmanned helicopters are too expensive, and copters are not yet capable of flying over long distances, and are used only for shooting local objects (individual buildings and structures).
Rice. 1. UAV Mavinci SIRIUS Fig. 2. UAV Geoscan 101
ADVANTAGES OF UAV
The superiority of UAVs over manned aircraft is, first of all, the cost of work, as well as a significant reduction in the number of routine operations. The very absence of a person on board the aircraft greatly simplifies the preparatory activities for aerial photography.
Firstly, you don’t need an airfield, even the most primitive one. Unmanned aerial vehicles are launched either by hand or using a special take-off device - a catapult.
Secondly, especially when using an electric propulsion circuit, there is no need for qualified technical assistance to maintain the aircraft, and measures to ensure safety at the work site are not so complex.
Thirdly, there is no or much longer inter-regulatory period of operation of a UAV compared to a manned aircraft.
This circumstance is of great importance when operating an aerial photography complex in remote areas of our country. As a rule, the field season for aerial photography is short; every fine day must be used for surveying.
UAV DEVICE
two main UAV layout schemes: classical (according to the “fuselage + wings + tail” scheme), which includes, for example, the Orlan-10 UAV, Mavinci SIRIUS (Fig. 1), etc., and the “flying wing”, which includes include Geoscan101 (Fig. 2), Gatewing X100, Trimble UX5, etc.
The main parts of an unmanned aerial photography system are: body, engine, on-board control system (autopilot), ground control system (GCS) and aerial photography equipment.
The UAV body is made of lightweight plastic (such as carbon fiber or Kevlar) to protect expensive camera equipment and controls and navigation, and its wings are made of plastic or extruded polystyrene foam (EPP). This material is lightweight, quite durable and does not break upon impact. A deformed EPP part can often be restored using improvised means.
A lightweight UAV with a parachute landing can withstand several hundred flights without repair, which usually includes replacing wings, fuselage elements, etc. Manufacturers are trying to reduce the cost of parts of the body that are subject to wear, so that the user's costs for maintaining the UAV in working condition are minimal.
It should be noted that the most expensive elements of the aerial photography complex, the ground control system, avionics, and software, are not subject to wear at all.
The UAV's power plant can be gasoline or electric. Moreover, a gasoline engine will provide a much longer flight, since gasoline, per kilogram, stores 10–15 times more energy than can be stored in the best battery. However, such a power plant is complex, less reliable and requires considerable time to prepare the UAV for launch. In addition, a gasoline-powered unmanned aerial vehicle is extremely difficult to transport to a work site by plane. Finally, it requires highly qualified operators. Therefore, it makes sense to use a gasoline UAV only in cases where a very long flight duration is required - for continuous monitoring, for examining particularly remote objects.
An electric propulsion system, on the contrary, is very undemanding in terms of the qualifications of the operating personnel. Modern batteries can provide a continuous flight duration of over four hours. Servicing an electric motor is not difficult at all. Mostly this is only protection from moisture and dirt, as well as checking the voltage of the on-board network, which is carried out from the ground control system. The batteries are charged from the on-board network of the accompanying vehicle or from an autonomous electric generator. The brushless electric motor of a UAV has virtually no wear and tear.
The autopilot - with an inertial system (Fig. 3) - is the most important control element of the UAV.
The autopilot weighs only 20–30 grams. But this is a very complex product. In addition to a powerful processor, the autopilot contains many sensors - a three-axis gyroscope and accelerometer (and sometimes a magnetometer), GLO-NAS/GPS receiver, pressure sensor, airspeed sensor. With these devices, an unmanned aerial vehicle will be able to fly strictly on a given course.
Rice. 3. AutopilotMicropilot
The UAV has a radio modem necessary for downloading the flight mission, transmitting telemetric data about the flight and the current location at the work site to the ground control system.
Ground control system
(NSU) is a tablet computer or laptop equipped with a modem for communication with the UAV. An important part of the NCS is software for planning a flight mission and displaying the progress of its implementation.
As a rule, a flight mission is compiled automatically, according to a given contour of an area object or nodal points of a linear object. In addition, it is possible to design flight routes based on the required flight altitude and the required resolution of photographs on the ground. To automatically maintain a given flight altitude, it is possible to take into account a digital terrain model in common formats in the flight mission.
During the flight, the position of the UAV and the contours of the photographs taken are displayed on the cartographic background of the NSU monitor. During the flight, the operator has the opportunity to quickly redirect the UAV to another landing area and even quickly land the UAV using the “red” button of the ground control system. Upon command from the NCS, other auxiliary operations can be planned, for example, parachute release.
In addition to providing navigation and flight support, the autopilot must control the camera to take pictures at a given frame interval (as soon as the UAV has flown the required distance from the previous photographing center). If the pre-calculated frame interval is not maintained stably, you have to adjust the shutter response time so that even with a tailwind, the longitudinal overlap is sufficient.
The autopilot must register the coordinates of the photographing centers of the GLONASS/GPS geodetic satellite receiver so that the automatic image processing program can quickly build a model and tie it to the terrain. The required accuracy in determining the coordinates of photographing centers depends on the technical specifications for performing aerial photography work.
Aerial photography equipment is installed on a UAV depending on its class and purpose of use.
Micro- and mini-UAVs are equipped with compact digital cameras equipped with interchangeable lenses with a fixed focal length (without a zoom lens or zoom device) weighing 300–500 grams. SONY NEX-7 cameras are currently used as such cameras.
with a 24.3 MP matrix, CANON600D 18.5 MP matrix and the like. The shutter is controlled and the signal from the shutter is transmitted to the satellite receiver using standard or slightly modified electrical connectors of the camera.
Lightweight short-range UAVs are equipped with SLR cameras with a large photosensitive element, for example CanonEOS5D (sensor size 36×24 mm), NikonD800 (matrix 36.8 MP (sensor size 35.9×24 mm)), Pentax645D (CCD sensor 44x33 mm, 40 MP matrix) and the like, weighing 1.0–1.5 kilograms.
Rice. 4. Layout of aerial photographs (blue rectangles with number signatures)
UAV CAPABILITIES
According to the requirements of the document “Basic provisions for aerial photography performed to create and update topographic maps and plans” GKINP-09-32-80, the carrier of aerial photography equipment must extremely accurately follow the design position of aerial photography routes, maintain a given echelon (photographing height), and ensure compliance requirements maximum deviations in camera orientation angles - tilt, roll, pitch. In addition, navigation equipment must provide the exact time of operation of the photo shutter and determine the coordinates of photographing centers.
The equipment integrated into the autopilot was indicated above: a microbarometer, an airspeed sensor, an inertial system, and navigation satellite equipment. Based on the tests carried out (in particular, the Geoscan101 UAV), the following deviations of the actual shooting parameters from the specified ones were established:
UAV deviations from the route axis are in the range of 5–10 meters;
Photography height deviations are in the range of 5–10 meters;
Fluctuation in photographing heights of adjacent images - no more
The “herringbones” that appear during flight (reversals of images in the horizontal plane) are processed by an automated photogrammetric processing system without noticeable negative consequences.
Photographic equipment installed on a UAV allows you to obtain digital images of the area with a resolution of better than 3 centimeters per pixel. The use of short-, medium-, and long-focus photographic lenses is determined by the nature of the resulting finished materials: be it a relief model or an orthomosaic. All calculations are made in the same way as in “large” aerial photography.
The use of a dual-frequency GLO-NASS/GPS satellite geodetic system to determine the coordinates of image centers allows, in the process of post-processing, to obtain the coordinates of photographing centers with an accuracy of better than 5 centimeters, and the use of the PPP (PrecisePoint Positioning) method allows one to determine the coordinates of image centers without the use of base stations or at a significant distance from them.
The final processing of aerial photography materials can serve as an objective criterion for assessing the quality of the work performed. To illustrate, we can consider data on assessing the accuracy of photogrammetric processing of aerial photography materials from a UAV, performed in the PhotoScan software (manufactured by Agisoſt, St. Petersburg) according to control points (Table 2).
Point numbers |
Errors along coordinate axes, m |
Abs, pix |
Projections |
|||
(ΔD)2= ΔХ2+ ΔY2+ ΔZ2 |
UAV APPLICATION
In the world, and recently in Russia, unmanned aerial vehicles are used in geodetic surveys during construction, for drawing up cadastral plans of industrial facilities, transport infrastructure, settlements, summer cottages, in surveying to determine the volume of mine workings and dumps, taking into account traffic bulk cargo in quarries, ports, mining and processing plants, to create maps, plans and 3D models of cities and enterprises.
3. Tseplyaeva T.P., Morozova O.V. Stages of development of unmanned aerial vehicles. M., “Open information and computer integrated technologies”, No. 42, 2009.
Nowadays, many developing countries allocate a lot of money from their budgets to improve and develop new types of UAVs - unmanned aerial vehicles. In the theater of military operations, it was not uncommon for the command to give preference to a digital machine over a pilot when solving a combat or training mission. And there were a number of good reasons for this. Firstly, it is continuity of work. Drones are capable of performing a task for up to 24 hours without interruption for rest and sleep - integral elements of human needs. Secondly, it's endurance.
The drone operates almost uninterruptedly in conditions of high overloads, and where the human body is simply not able to withstand overloads of 9G, the drone can continue to operate. Well, thirdly, this is the absence of the human factor and the execution of the task according to the program embedded in the computer complex. The only person who can make a mistake is the operator who enters information to complete the mission - robots do not make mistakes.
History of UAV development
For a long time now, man has had the idea of creating a machine that could be controlled from a distance without harm to oneself. 30 years after the Wright brothers' first flight, this idea became a reality, and in 1933 a special remote-controlled aircraft was built in the UK.
The first drone to take part in the battles was. It was a radio-controlled rocket with a jet engine. It was equipped with an autopilot, into which German operators entered information about the upcoming flight. During the Second World War, this missile successfully completed about 20 thousand combat missions, carrying out air strikes on important strategic and civilian targets in Great Britain.
After the end of World War II, the United States and the Soviet Union, in the course of growing mutual claims against each other, which became a springboard for the start of the Cold War, began to allocate huge amounts of money from the budget for the development of unmanned aerial vehicles.
Thus, during combat operations in Vietnam, both sides actively used UAVs to solve various combat missions. Radio-controlled vehicles took aerial photographs, conducted radar reconnaissance, and were used as repeaters.
In 1978, there was a real breakthrough in the history of drone development. The IAI Scout was introduced by Israeli military representatives and became the first combat UAV in history.
And in 1982, during the war in Libya, this drone almost completely destroyed the Syrian air defense system. During those hostilities, the Syrian army lost 19 anti-aircraft batteries and 85 aircraft were destroyed.
After these events, Americans began to pay maximum attention to the development of drones, and in the 90s they became world leaders in the use of unmanned aerial vehicles.
Drones were actively used in 1991 during Desert Storm, as well as during military operations in Yugoslavia in 1999. Currently, the US Army has about 8.5 thousand radio-controlled drones in service, and these are mainly small-sized UAVs for performing reconnaissance missions in the interests of ground forces.
Design features
Since the invention of the target drone by the British, science has made huge strides in the development of remote-controlled flying robots. Modern drones have a greater range and flight speed.
This happens mainly due to the rigid fixation of the wing, the power of the engine built into the robot and the fuel used, of course. There are also battery-powered drones, but they are not able to compete in flight range with fuel-powered ones, at least not yet.
Gliders and tiltrotors are widely used in reconnaissance operations. The former are quite simple to manufacture and do not require large financial investments, and some designs do not include an engine.
A distinctive feature of the latter is that its take-off is based on helicopter thrust, while when maneuvering in the air, these drones use airplane wings.
Tailsiggers are robots that the developers have endowed with the ability to change flight profiles while in the air. This happens due to the rotation of either the entire or part of the structure in a vertical plane. There are also wired drones and the drone is piloted by transmitting control commands to its board via a connected cable.
There are drones that differ from the rest in their set of non-standard functions or functions performed in an unusual style. These are exotic UAVs, and some of them can easily land on water or stick to a vertical surface like a stuck fish.
UAVs, which are based on a helicopter design, also differ from each other in their functions and tasks. There are devices with both one propeller and several - such drones are called quadrocopters, and they are used mainly for “civilian” purposes.
They have 2, 4, 6 or 8 screws, paired and symmetrically located from the longitudinal axis of the robot, and the more there are, the better the UAV is stable in the air, and it is much better controllable.
What types of drones are there?
In uncontrolled UAVs, a person takes part only when launching and entering flight parameters before the drone takes off. As a rule, these are budget drones that do not require special operator training or special landing sites for their operation.
Remotely controlled drones are designed to adjust their flight path, while automatic robots perform the task completely autonomously. The success of the mission here depends on the accuracy and correctness of the operator entering pre-flight parameters into a stationary computer complex located on the ground.
The weight of micro drones is no more than 10 kg, and they can stay in the air for no more than an hour, drones of the mini group weigh up to 50 kg, and are capable of performing a task for 3...5 hours without a break; for medium-sized ones, the weight of some samples reaches 1 ton and their time work is 15 hours. As for heavy UAVs, which weigh more than a ton, these drones can fly continuously for more than 24 hours, and some of them are capable of intercontinental flights.
Foreign drones
One of the directions in the development of UAVs is to reduce their dimensions without significant damage to technical characteristics. The Norwegian company Prox Dynamics has developed a helicopter-type micro drone PD-100 Black Hornet.
This drone can operate for about a quarter of an hour at a distance of up to 1 km. This robot is used as a soldier's personal reconnaissance device and is equipped with three video cameras. Used by some US regular units in Afghanistan since 2012.
The most common U.S. Army drone is the RQ-11 Raven. It is launched from the soldier’s hand and does not require a special platform for landing; it can fly both automatically and under operator control.
US soldiers use this lightweight drone to solve short-range reconnaissance missions at the company level.
Heavier UAVs of the American army are represented by the RQ-7 Shadow and RQ-5 Hunter. Both samples are intended for reconnaissance of terrain at the brigade level.
The continuous operating time in the air of these drones differs significantly from lighter models. There are numerous modifications of them, some of which include the function of hanging small guided bombs weighing up to 5.4 kg on them.
MKyu-1 Predator is the most famous American drone. Initially, its main task, like many other models, was terrain reconnaissance. But soon, in 2000, manufacturers made a number of modifications to its design, allowing it to carry out combat missions related to the direct destruction of targets.
In addition to suspended missiles (Hellfire-S, created specifically for this drone in 2001), three video cameras, an infrared system and its own on-board radar are installed on board the robot. Now there are several modifications of the MKyu-1 Predator to perform tasks of a wide variety of nature.
In 2007, another attack UAV appeared - the American MKyu-9 Reaper. Compared to the MKyu-1 Predator, its flight duration was much higher, and in addition to missiles, it could carry guided bombs on board and had more modern radio electronics.
Type of UAV | MKyu-1 Predator | MKew-9 Reaper |
---|---|---|
Length, m | 8.5 | 11 |
Speed, km/h | up to 215 | up to 400 |
Weight, kg | 1030 | 4800 |
Wingspan, m | 15 | 20 |
Flight range, km | 750 | 5900 |
Power plant, engine | piston | turboprop |
Operating time, h | up to 40 | 16-28 |
up to 4 Hellfire-S missiles | bombs up to 1700 kg | |
Service ceiling, km | 7.9 | 15 |
The RQ-4 Global Hawk is rightfully considered the largest UAV in the world. In 1998, it took off for the first time and to this day carries out reconnaissance missions.
This drone is the first robot in history that can use US airspace and air corridors without permission from air traffic control.
Domestic UAVs
Russian drones are conventionally divided into the following categories
The Eleon-ZSV UAV is a short-range device, it is quite simple to operate and can be easily carried in a backpack. The drone is launched manually from a harness or compressed air from a pump.
Capable of conducting reconnaissance and transmitting information via a digital video channel at a distance of up to 25 km. Eleon-10V is similar in design and operating rules to the previous device. Their main difference is the increase in flight range to 50 km.
The landing process of these UAVs is carried out using special parachutes, ejected when the drone exhausts its battery charge.
Reis-D (Tu-243) is a reconnaissance and strike drone capable of carrying aircraft weapons weighing up to 1 ton. The device, produced by the Tupolev Design Bureau, made its first flight in 1987.
Since then, the drone has undergone numerous improvements; an improved flight and navigation system, new radar reconnaissance devices, and a competitive optical system have been installed.
Irkut-200 is more of an attack drone. And it primarily values the high autonomy of the device and its low weight, thanks to which flights lasting up to 12 hours can be carried out. The UAV lands on a specially equipped platform about 250 m long.
Type of UAV | Reis-D (Tu-243) | Irkut-200 |
---|---|---|
Length, m | 8.3 | 4.5 |
Weight, kg | 1400 | 200 |
Power point | turbojet engine | ICE with a capacity of 60 hp. With. |
Speed, km/h | 940 | 210 |
Flight range, km | 360 | 200 |
Operating time, h | 8 | 12 |
Service ceiling, km | 5 | 5 |
Skat is a new generation heavy long-range UAV being developed by the MiG Design Bureau. This drone will be invisible to enemy radars, thanks to the body assembly design that eliminates the tail.
The task of this drone is to carry out precise missile and bomb attacks on ground targets, such as anti-aircraft batteries of air defense forces or stationary command posts. According to the developers of the UAV, Skat will be able to perform tasks both autonomously and as part of an aircraft flight.
Length, m | 10,25 |
---|---|
Speed, km/h | 900 |
Weight, t | 10 |
Wingspan, m | 11,5 |
Flight range, km | 4000 |
Power point | Double-circuit turbojet engine |
Operating time, h | 36 |
Adjustable bombs 250 and 500 kg. | |
Service ceiling, km | 12 |
Disadvantages of unmanned aerial vehicles
One of the disadvantages of UAVs is the difficulty in piloting them. Thus, an ordinary private who has not completed a special training course and does not know certain subtleties when using the operator’s computer complex cannot approach the control panel.
Another significant drawback is the difficulty of searching for drones after they land using parachutes. Because some models, when the battery charge is close to critical, may provide incorrect data about their location.
To this we can also add the sensitivity of some models to wind, due to the lightness of the design.
Some drones can rise to great heights, and in some cases, reaching the height of a particular drone requires permission from air traffic control, which can significantly complicate the completion of the mission by a certain deadline, because priority in the airspace is given to vessels under the control of a pilot, and not operator.
Use of UAVs for civilian purposes
Drones have found their calling not only on the battlefield or during military operations. Now drones are actively used for completely peaceful purposes by citizens in urban environments, and even in some branches of agriculture they have found use.
Thus, some courier services use helicopter-powered robots to deliver a wide variety of goods to their customers. Many photographers use drones to take aerial photographs when organizing special events.
Some detective agencies also adopted them.
Conclusion
Unmanned aerial vehicles are a significantly new word in the age of rapidly developing technologies. Robots keep up with the times, covering not only one direction, but developing in several at once.
But still, despite the models still being far from ideal, by human standards, in terms of errors or flight ranges, UAVs have one huge and undeniable advantage. Drones have saved hundreds of human lives during their use, and this is worth a lot.
Video
The book is primarily for informational purposes and is written based on the results of reviews and analysis of numerous literary and Internet sources. It introduces the reader to the current terminology and classification in the field of unmanned aircraft, modern trends in the production of unmanned aerial vehicles, as well as the state of the market for unmanned aircraft systems.
1.2.3.1. UVS International Classification
In addition to the flight principle, a large number of objective criteria can be used to classify UAVs: take-off weight, range, altitude and flight duration, vehicle dimensions, etc. .
The International Association for Unmanned Vehicle Systems International AUVSI (Association for Unmanned Vehicle Systems International, until 2004 it was called the European Association for Unmanned Vehicle Systems - EURO UVS) has proposed a universal classification of UAVs, which combines many of the above criteria. In table Figure 1.4 shows this classification with English equivalents of the categories and abbreviations.
Table 1.4 Universal classification of UAVs by flight parameters | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Group | Category | Take-off weight, kg | Flight range, km | Flight altitude, m | Flight duration, h | |
rus. | English | |||||
Small UAVs Nano-UAVs | Nano | < 0,025 | < 1 | 100 | 1 | |
Micro UAV | Micro(?) | <5 | < 10 | 250 | 1 | |
Mini UAV | Mini | 5-150* | < 10 | 150-300* | <2 | |
Tactical | Light UAVs for monitoring the front line of defense | Close Range (CR) | 25-150 | 10-30 | 3000 | 2-4 |
Lightweight short-range UAVs | Short Range (SR) | 50-250 | 30-70 | 3000 | 3-6 | |
Medium UAVs | Medium Range (MR) | 150-500 | 70-200 | 5000 | 6-10 | |
Medium UAVs with long flight duration | Medium Range Endurance (MRE) | 500-1500 | >500 | 8000 | 10-18 | |
Low-altitude UAVs for penetrating into the depths of enemy defenses | Low Altitude Deep Penetration (LADP) | 250-2500 | >250 | 50-9000 | 0,5-1 |
Continuation of Table 1.4
Group | Category | Take-off weight, kg | Flight range, km | Flight altitude, m | Flight duration, h | |
rus. | English | |||||
Tactical | Low-altitude UAVs with long flight duration | Low Altitude Long Endurance (LALE) | 15-25 | >500 | 3000 | >24 |
Medium-altitude UAVs with long flight duration | Medium Altitude Long Endurance (MALE) | 1000-1500 | >500 | 5000-8000 | 24-48 | |
Strategic | High-altitude UAVs with long flight duration | High Altitude Long Endurance (HALE) | 2500-5000 | >2000 | 20000 | 24-48 |
Combat (attack) UAVs | Unmanned Combat Aerial Vehicles (UCAV) | >1000 | 1500 | 12000 | 2 | |
Special purpose | UAVs equipped with a warhead (lethal action) | Lethal (LET) (Offensive) | 300 | 4000 | 3-4 | |
UAV - decoys | Decoys (DEC) | 150-500 | 0-500 | 50-5000 | <4 | |
Stratospheric UAVs | Stratospheric (STRA) | >2500 | >2000 | >20000 | >48 | |
Exostratosphere UAVs | Exo-stratospheric (EXO) | - | - | > 30500 | - | |
* - depends on the restrictions adopted in a particular country |
The above classification applies to both existing and promising UAVs under development. Basically, this classification was formed by 2000, but since then it has been revised many times. Even now it cannot be considered established. In addition, many special types of devices with non-standard combinations of parameters are difficult to classify into any specific class. Some versions of this classification classify the military-specific UCAV, Lethal, and Decoys classes as a separate group of UAVs. There is also a tendency, due to the rapidly growing number of civilian applications of UAVs, not to divide UAVs into strategic and tactical ones at all.
In Fig. Figure 1.68 shows examples of UAVs belonging to the Mini and Micro categories. The examples indicate the country and manufacturer and model of the device. In these categories there are devices with a wide variety of flight principles: aircraft, helicopter types, with flexible and flapping wings, aerostatic. In the Mini category, a special subgroup consists of aerostatic UAVs (Mini - Lighter-than-Air), because Formally, their mass usually does not exceed 150 kg, but in terms of volume they stand out sharply from the rest. The Nano-UAV category has appeared in recent years in connection with the success of creating ultra-light (‹ 25 g) devices (including insect-like ones - entomopters).
UAVs of the Close Range and Short Range categories are very numerous (Fig. 1.69). Typical applications are reconnaissance and artillery fire adjustment, radio jamming. For aircraft of this category, the usual launch method is from a catapult.
The MR (Medium Range) UAV category is represented by aircraft, helicopter types, or their hybrids (Fig. 1.70). In addition to monitoring tasks, they are often tasked with relaying radio signals to provide communications to ground and air objects within a radius of about 200 km.
They are distinguished from the devices of the previous group by a more powerful power plant, improved aerodynamic characteristics and a more complex control system.
In the MRE category (Fig. 1.71), helicopter-type devices are already rarely found - it is represented mainly by unmanned aircraft. Their feature, as a rule, is special aerodynamic design parameters that contribute to flight efficiency.
A distinctive feature of the LADP UAV category (Fig. 1.72) is the high speed of the devices, designed to quickly penetrate deep into enemy territory. The main functions are reconnaissance and target designation. Jet engines are used as power plants.
The devices of the LALE group (Fig. 1.73) are designed for long-term flights for the purpose of reconnaissance, video filming, meteorological and environmental observations. The flight speed is about 100-150 km/h. They are distinguished by their low weight and economical power plant.
UAVs from the MALE category (Fig. 1.74) occupy an intermediate position between tactical and strategic UAVs. Usually these are multi-purpose devices. In addition to the usual functions of reconnaissance, surveillance, targeting, radio repeaters, they can carry weapons on board (usually in the form of high-precision missiles), and perform transport tasks (dropping or receiving cargo at a designated location).
HALE class UAVs (Fig. 1.75) are designed to perform strategic missions. The most famous in this category is the American Global Hawk. As a rule, such UAVs combine reconnaissance and attack functions. They can perform all phases of the flight (including takeoff and landing on the runway) in automatic mode. Non-military HALE devices perform surveillance, photography, signal relay and atmospheric monitoring functions. To ensure long flight duration and efficiency of the device, the power plant is often implemented in the form of an electrical system based on electric motors, batteries and solar panels.
In addition to HALE, UAVs of the UCAV (Unmanned Combat Aerial Vehicle) class are also classified as strategic (Fig. 1.76). In Russia, UAVs of this class are called unmanned combat aircraft (UCA). BBS is an attack and reconnaissance UAV, which is an unmanned reconnaissance aircraft capable of simultaneously conducting reconnaissance, searching for targets and destroying them.
For this purpose, the device carries high-precision strike weapons. Typical examples of such machines are the American Predator MQ-1B and Reaper MQ-9. The BBS is already a real combat unit. In fact, it is an unmanned fighter or attack aircraft. It is no coincidence that such aircraft were proposed to be made on the basis of serial manned aircraft, in particular, Lockheed Martin F-16 fighters or Fairchild A-10 attack aircraft. Currently, work is underway in Russia and abroad on a number of BBS projects and their demonstration prototypes. Thus, work has begun in Russia on the creation of a BBS, the basis for which will be the new fifth-generation fighter PAK-FA T-50.
Modern airborne systems, in addition to missile weapons, are distinguished by the presence of complex radio navigation systems, radars (usually based on AFAR - active phased antenna arrays), highly efficient means of surveillance and data transmission. Stealth technology, which is used in manned fighters of new generations and ensures the aircraft's invisibility from enemy radars, is also used in BBS, but in very limited quantities. Their survivability is ensured by simpler methods - small size, appropriate layout, low noise level and camouflage coloring. Many BBS models are designed for deck-based use.
The highly specialized categories of Lethal and Decoys relate exclusively to military applications. Sometimes they are not included in the classification, placing vehicle models in the categories described above in accordance with their take-off weight and flight parameters.
Lethal class UAVs combine the functions of a reconnaissance UAV and a homing bomb or missile. If necessary, the device is directed to the selected object and destroys it. There are special modifications for different purposes: anti-tank, anti-radar, anti-ship, etc. Such devices can be launched both from the ground and from a ship or aircraft (usually using a catapult or a jet accelerator).
Decoys category UAVs are flying targets designed to disorient enemy offensive weapons, perform diversionary maneuvers to assess the enemy's reaction, as well as for training their personnel and testing aircraft, missiles and electronic equipment.
The categories of stratospheric (Strato) and superstratospheric (Exo Strato) devices so far relate not to those being produced, but to those being developed. Their purpose is long-term (including continuous) observation of the earth's surface and the state of the atmosphere, relaying signals. In some areas of application, such UAVs will apparently be able to compete with orbital spacecraft, and in some projects they are expected to be used together.
The number of UAV developments existing in the world is very unevenly distributed across these categories. According to the data, it looks like this (Fig. 1.77).
As can be seen from the diagram, the leader in the number of developments is the Mini category. This is quite understandable, because... The rapid progress in this class of devices is due to the coincidence of several favorable factors. Firstly, this is the relative ease of their operation and accessibility (including cost) for a large number of end consumers. Secondly, these devices are suitable for performing a wide variety of tasks, not only in the military field, but also in civilian ones, and it is the demand for devices for civilian use that has mainly stimulated their development in recent years. And thirdly, in the last decade, all the necessary conditions have matured for the development and start of production of just such devices - relatively small in weight and dimensions, but capable of performing quite serious tasks. These mature prerequisites include: advances in the field of microsystem technology (in particular, the emergence of gyroscopes and accelerometers in microminiature versions), the widespread introduction of global positioning systems (such as GPS), the emergence of other necessary elements for completing mini-UAVs: effective video cameras, brushless electric motors and corresponding drivers, energy-intensive lithium-polymer batteries, etc.